History records the lives of some men who lived to proclaim and defend one main doctrine, even though they were greatly opposed and suffered much for their convictions. Athanasius, who defended the doctrine of the divinity of Christ, and Gottschalk, who defended the doctrine of predestination, are good examples.

Gottschalk was born in 805, the son of the German Saxon, Count Bruno. At an early age, his father devoted him as an oblatus, a pious offering, to the Benedictine monastery of Fulda in Germany, to be educated and trained as a monk.

In 829 Gottschalk sought to be released from his monastic vows. He applied to the Synod of Mainz, arguing that he had been devoted to the monastic profession before he could exercise any will of his own. He argued that parents had no right to make their sons slaves of God, and that monas­teries were human institutions and were in need of correction.

The Synod granted Gottschalk the release he requested. However, this release was soon overturned. The newly elected Abbot of Fulda, Rabanus Maurus (784-856), who was considered the most able teacher of his time, appealed to Louis the Pious (814-840), the Emperor of Germany, arguing that children, devoted to monasteries by their parents, were bound by that decision of their parents. Consequently, the Emperor revoked the Synod's decision and Gottschalk was compelled to remain in a monastery. Because of the conflict between Gottschalk and his superior, Rabanus Maurus, he could no longer stay at Fulda and went to France.

In France, Gottschalk entered the Franciscan monastery of Orbias in the diocese of Soissons where he diligently applied himself to the study of the works of Augustine of Hippo (354-430). He embraced the system of Augus­tine, including the doctrine of predestination. Gottschalk read and explained the writings of Augustine to his fellow monks, some of whom came to accept the doctrine of predestination.

Gottschalk was a diligent and systematic scholar. He was so enthusiastic concerning his convictions that his opponents accused him of pride, speculation and ambition. Later he was ordained to the priesthood by the local bishop of Reims and became one of the numerous itinerant monks at that time.

He was led to recognise the importance of the doctrine of predestination in a Christian's life. He viewed this truth as also being essential to the very idea of God and the unchangeableness of his will.

At that time the doctrines of Augustine were held in high regard and were officially the doctrines of the church. However, the church had only partially accepted the doctrine of grace as taught by Augustine; and only partly rejected the Pelagian doctrine of human ability. Augustine's doctrine of predestination had been modified to mean that God chose those whom he foresaw would repent and believe. Consequently, God's predestination was made subservient to his foreknowledge of human actions.

The particular emphasis of Gottschalk was that there is a double predesti­nation, the elect are chosen to eternal life, and the wicked are predestined to condemnation for their sins. He believed that these two aspects could not be separated. He applied the term 'predestination' to both the godly and ungodly. He understood that God's foreknowledge and foreordination are one and not separate, as many theologians thought. To Gottschalk, such teaching made the decree of God dependent on the acts of man.

Gottschalk was careful to teach that God is not the author of man's sin. Man is fully responsible for his own sin. God's decree concerning it is permissive but certain.

The predestination of the wicked was not to commit sin, as Gottschalk was accused by his opponents, but to punishment for their sins.

He said: I believe and confess that God foreknew and foreordained the holy angels and elect men to unmerited eternal life, but that he equally foreordained the devil and his hosts and with all reprobate men, on account of their foreseen future evil deeds, by a just judgment to merited eternal death.

Gottschalk proclaimed his doctrines with great zeal, and debated with people of all ranks. He visited Rome and other places, preaching wherever he could.

In 847, while visiting to Italy, he resided with Prince Eberhard, the son of King Louis, where he explained this doctrine of a twofold predestination to Notting, the future bishop of Verona. Notting informed Rabanus Maurus (Gottschalk's former superior), now bishop of Mainz, who charged him with heresy as teaching that God predestines men to sin. Rabanus claimed that predestination could only be a preparation for grace. He claimed that God foreknows evil but does not predestine men to sin; all who yield their corrupt will to divine grace will be saved.

In 848 Gottschalk appeared before a synod, called by Rabanus in Mainz, in the presence of King Louis. At this synod he boldly maintained his views. The doctrines of Gottschalk were condemned by the synod, and he was obliged to swear that he would never again enter the dominions of Louis. Rabanus (now archbishop) sent him back to Hincmar (806-862), Archbishop of Reims, with a letter stating:

He declares that predestination is directed both to good and evil, and that there are people in this world who, since they are compelled by the predestination of God to go to death, cannot correct themselves of error and sin. As I hear he has already seduced many, and they are less attentive to their salvation, for they say, What shall it profit me to strive to serve God, for if I am predestinated to death I shall never escape it, but if, on the contrary, I behave badly and am predestinated to life, without doubt I shall go to eternal rest.

The following year (849), Gottschalk was brought before the synod of Quiercy in northern France, and was condemned and deposed from his priestly office. He was mercilessly flogged in the presence of King Charles the Bald, supposedly according to the rule of St Benedict. When exhausted from this cruel handling, he was compelled to throw his book, which seems to have consisted of a list of numerous texts and explanations of his teaching, into the fire. Being so weak from the cruel treatment, he had hardly the strength to do so.

This synod was reconvened in 853 under the influence of Archbishop Hincmar and the following doctrinal points were declared:

1. God has predestinated men to life only;

2. That human free-will, lost in Adam, has been restored in Christ;

3. That God will have all men to be saved;

4. That Jesus Christ suffered for all men.

Gottschalk was condemned by the synod to perpetual silence, and was removed to the monastery of Hautvilliers within the diocese of Reims. But his zeal was increased rather than daunted by this imprisonment. He refused to subscribe to a declaration that there might be divine foresight without predestination, although this might have gained his release.

He remained imprisoned in the monastery of Hautvilliers for twenty years until his death in 868. During this time, he remained firm in his understanding of God's Word. He expressed his desire to testify to the truth of his opinions before kings, bishops, clergy and laity, and that he was prepared to cast himself into a boiling cask of fluid or walk through a blazing pile, to demonstrate his faith in God and the truth of his convictions. Gottschalk seems to have died in a deranged condition due to isolation and ill-treatment. Archbishop Hincmar refused him communion or Christian burial until he recanted. This he scorned to do and so died unreconciled to the church.

Friends of Gottschalk, a number of whom partly agreed with him and kept in contact with him, sought to obtain his release and absolution by Archbishop Hincmar, but to no avail. Some of his fellow monks unsuccess­fully appealed for his release to Pope Nicholas I.

Articles and letters were written in his condemnation or defence. How­ever, very few scholars consistently supported his doctrines. Most of them opposed his doctrine, although many believed that he had been treated too severely.

The debate was so intense that Archbishop Hincmar asked the Irish scholar, John Scotus (810-877) a recognised scholar at the court of Charles the Bald, to refute Gottschalk's teachings. However, Scotus confused the issue and made heretical statements which further inflamed the debate. The doctrines of Gottschalk were again condemned at the synod of Valence in 855. However, this did not end matters, and it was not until the synod of Tuzey in 860, when both sides, weary with conflict, were reconciled.

This debate concerning predestination raged for some thirty years. It was the most serious discussion of that subject for four hundred years. The church was greatly divided and human emotions ran very high. The treat­ment which Gottschalk received demonstrates the deep-seated hostility which people have against the doctrine of God's absolute sovereignty in choosing or rejecting those whom he wills.

The issue of predestination was not so widely raised again until the time of the Reformation in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when it was widely recognised to be in accordance with Scripture.