The article considers some of the major questions that arise concerning the doctrines of election and reprobation.

Romans 9:17-18 has been a key text throughout church history for debates concerning predestination, reprobation, and free will. How should we understand the hardening of Pharaoh's heart? Beale attempts to reflect on these issues through an exegesis of each hardening passage in Exodus 4 to Exodus 14.

Election is rooted in God's sovereignty and is unconditional. Yet the elected are known through their fruits. This is what this article explains. It also points to the reality of reprobation as a biblical reality.