The Reformation, so to speak, rediscovered Scripture. Sola Scriptura, Scripture alone, ran counter to the generally held view of the time that the traditions of the church were also normative for life. In the Reformation, Scripture was discovered as the only source and standard for all of life, including man’s life in state and society. Calvin may therefore rightly be called the theologian of the Word. His theologizing was biblical theologizing. With him, theology was what it was meant to be: to focus on what God says.

I mentioned that the Reformation regarded Scripture as covering all of life. Political and social issues are very much part of this perspective. In both his bible commentaries and in his Institutes Calvin dealt extensively with social and political life and he presented a biblical view of the relationship between church and state. Whoever therefore seeks to escape from political and social responsibility in our present day will not get Calvin on board. If someone might object that our present day is very different from Calvin’s time — given the extent of de-Christianization — keep in mind that in those days, too, the conditions for a conversion-that-encompasses-one’s-whole-life were not present either, and that Calvin nevertheless allowed the Word to speak with authority. Based on God’s commandments, Calvin made the connections from the Word to his culture and to all aspects of life.

Twofold⤒🔗

Calvin noted that a Christian lives as it were in two worlds simultaneously, and is under two kinds of jurisdiction. He speaks of a spiritual and a civil government. The spiritual government takes place in and through the church. By means of the preaching of the Word, people are taught how they will be righteous before God and are to live piously. This government, which is a rule based on the Word, focuses not only on eternal life but it also deals with our temporary earthly life. The church also exercises discipline over the believers’ walk of life. But in doing so the church never wields the sword, nor does it try to use coercion to bring about good works. According to the Word, the church asks for voluntary penitence and obedience. Its strength lies in the Word, its punishment is spiritual in nature, and its motive is love, in order to save. At the same time, the church’s message touches all aspects of life because Scripture deals with it in its totality.

Civil Government←⤒🔗

In the case of the civil government things are different. It deals with good and evil in society, and its goal is to make life liveable for all through legislation and justice. In doing so, the government may use coercion. It can enforce obedience. The government is “an avenger who carries out God’s wrath on the wrongdoer” (Romans 13:4). In the meantime, the civil government also has everything to do with religion. Calvin writes in his Institutes:

But this temporal and external government is ordained and appointed, as long as we are among men, to maintain and protect the external worship of God, to defend the sound doctrine of and the condition of the church, to adapt our conduct to human society, to conform our manners and to civil justice, to conciliate us to each other, to cherish the common peace and tranquility. For the civil government serves not only for this (like all other things), namely, that men may live, eat, drink, and be maintained, though indeed it comprehends all this in itself, when it makes it possible for men to live together, yet it serves, I say, not only for this; But also so that no idolatry or blasphemy against the name of God, and against his truth, or other such scandals and aggravations against religion may publicly arise and be sown among the people; so that the common peace may not be disturbed; so that everyone may keep his goods wholly and undisturbed; so that men may interact and deal with one another without guile and hindrance; so that honour and morality may be practiced among them. In short, that there may be among Christians a public form and shape of religion, and that kindness and politeness may exist among men.IV.20.2

In short, Calvin counted it among the duties of government to support and protect “the external religion,” to defend “the sound doctrine of piety” and the welfare of the church, to promote justice in public life, to maintain public peace and order, and to provide for the best possible social interaction.

Sovereignty←⤒🔗

The starting point for Calvin’s view is God’s sovereignty: in other words, God’s control over all life. Governments have received only a mandate from God as the supreme Sovereign. As servants in their office they are empowered servants of him and answerable to him as the absolute Sovereign. Governments will also be accountable to God for their policies. In this context Psalm 82:1 is central for Calvin: “God has taken his place in the divine council; in the midst of the gods he holds judgment.” The "gods" noted here, by analogy to Christ’s word in John 10:34-35, are the civil governments. God is present in the offices of government and he judges what goes on there. The authorities have letters of authority to serve him and In his name to practice and promote justice among men. This theocratic view does not imply a direct government of God but an indirect one: “By me kings reign!” (Proverbs 8:15). But thereby the actions of the authorities take on all the more a dimension of ultimate gravity. Here it is of secondary importance what the form of the state looks like. Politically, there can be monarchy (government by one), aristocracy (government by the best) and democracy (government by the people). It is true that in a monarchy, the rule by one single person, things can easily lead to tyranny; that the aristocracy is no guarantee for a righteous policy (although Calvin does prefer this arrangement), and that in the democracy where the “common people” rule it is easy for a rebellion to arise. In principle, however, there is no choice to be made here. What does need to be chosen is that God’s rule (the theocracy) must be the normative principle, in whatever form of government. The theocracy is to be embedded in the chosen form of government.

The Law in Political Life←⤒🔗

Given Calvin’s starting point, it will be clear that he also assigns a function in political life to the Decalogue, the law of the Ten Commandments. The law also has a usus politicus (political function). And it does so in both tables. As for the first table of the law, also in society it is about the pure service to God. It is, so to speak, about the liturgy of life, about the praise of God right down to the street level, right down to political life. The second table of the law belongs to it unreservedly. Calvin writes:

In regard to the second table of the law, Jeremiah addresses rulers, “Thus saith the Lord, Execute ye judgment and righteousness, and deliver the spoiled out of the hand of the oppressor: and do no wrong, do no violence to the stranger, the fatherless, nor the widow, neither shed innocent blood” (Jeremiah 22:3). To the same effect is the exhortation in the Psalm, “Defend the poor and fatherless; do justice to the afflicted and needy. Deliver the poor and needy; rid them out of the hand of the wicked” (Psalm 82:3,4). Moses also declared to the princes whom he had substituted for himself,

Hear the causes between your brethren, and judge righteously between every man and his brother, and the stranger that is with him. Ye shall not respect persons in judgment; but ye shall hear the small as well as the great: ye shall not be afraid of the face of man, for the judgment is God’s.Deuteronomy 1:16 Institutes IV.2.9 [translated by Beveridge])

When in our time a theology becomes widespread that puts the content of Scripture entirely on political and social ground ("places it on the procrustean bed of social ideology,” Getuigenis), especially where concepts such as righteousness are concerned, Calvin in particular does teach us not to ignore the aspect of earthly righteousness out of reaction. But from a biblical perspective the law does take on a theocratic dimension, for it involves service to God and man: “It is an abomination to kings to do evil, for the throne is established in righteousness” (Calvin refers here to Solomon: Proverbs 16:12).

The laws of a nation must be according to the norm of the law of God. God forbids stealing and killing. Therein lies “the principle of equity.” The law of morals is no other than a testimony to the law of nature and to the conscience, which God has imprinted in the hearts of all men. It is no wonder, therefore, that the second table of the law has met with respect throughout the ages, even among non-Christians, to base their politics on it. But the strength of Calvin’s position lies in the inseparable union of the second and first table. Calvin realized that governments can only be “for our good” when they regulate social life according to the ordinances set by God, according to the good law of God.

Obedience ←⤒🔗

It will be clear, given the fact that Calvin regards governments in a broader light, in their ministerial quality, that he sets high demands for obedience to lawful authority. He refers to many proofs of scriptures here. “Fear God; honour the king”, Peter says (incidentally, in a non-Christian society and context). Paul calls upon his readers to obey the authorities, not for the sake of fear of punishment but for the sake of conscience (Romans 13:5). Every person is to be subject to the powers over him (Romans 13:1). Peter tells believers to “Be subject for the Lord’s sake to every human institution,” (1 Peter 2:13). In a similar vein Timothy is also urged to offer “supplications, prayers, intercessions, and thanksgiving for all people” – a call to political intercession (1 Timothy 2:1).

Given all this, revolution is far from Calvin’s mind. But neither does he demand obedience-at-any-price, although he acknowledges that “an impious king” may be “a mark of the Lord’s anger” (IV.20.25). But here he is not asking for absolute obedience. The obedience of the authorities is subordinate to the obedience to God, to whose will the authorities are to be subject as well. The office is to be served with dignity. The authorities are servants of God, for our good. It is fitting to quote here what Calvin writes in this context about authorities who forsake their calling as being his office-bearers:

Now, as we have hitherto described the magistrate who truly is what he is called — viz. the father of his country, and (as the Poet speaks) the pastor of the people, the guardian of peace, the president of justice, the vindicator of innocence, he is justly to be deemed a madman who disapproves of such authority. And since in almost all ages we see that some princes, careless about all their duties on which they ought to have been intent, live, without solicitude, in luxurious sloth; others, bent on their own interest, venally prostitute all rights, privileges, judgments, and enactments; others pillage poor people of their money, and afterwards squander it in insane largesses; others act as mere robbers, pillaging houses, violating matrons, and slaying the innocent; many cannot be persuaded to recognise such persons for princes, whose command, as far as lawful, they are bound to obey. For while in this unworthy conduct, and among atrocities so alien, not only from the duty of the magistrate, but also of the man, they behold no appearance of the image of God, which ought to be conspicuous in the magistrate, while they see not a vestige of that minister of God, who was appointed to be a praise to the good and a terror to the bad, they cannot recognise the ruler whose dignity and authority Scripture recommends to us. And, undoubtedly, the natural feeling of the human mind has always been not less to assail tyrants with hatred and execration, than to look up to just kings with love and veneration.IV.20.24

One sees Calvin’s struggle regarding obedience to lawful authority. On the one hand, God appoints the authorities; on the other hand, the authorities are to act “for our good.”

Where lies the right to rebellion? Nebuchadnezzar was an “active invader and devastator of other countries.” But Daniel also said to him that God had given him a kingdom, power, strength and honour, and had given in his hand the beasts of the field and the birds of the sky. And to his son Belshazzar, Daniel also said, “The Most High God gave your father Nebuchadnezzar the kingdom.” But on the other hand, Calvin says that God sometimes wants to replace bad governments with better ones through inherently unlawful rebellions:

Herein is the goodness, power, and providence of God wondrously displayed. At one time he raises up manifest avengers from among his own servants, and gives them his command to punish accursed tyranny, and deliver his people from calamity when they are unjustly oppressed; at another time he employs, for this purpose, the fury of men who have other thoughts and other aims. IV.20.30

Gloria Dei←⤒🔗

In conclusion, it needs to be said that in everything Calvin had his eye on the gloria Dei, the honour of God. In this he was fully theocratic: everything must serve to honour him! As a theologian of the Word, a “God-sayer” in the true sense of the word, he was concerned with public service to God. To him, church and state were the focal points of the same ellipse, around which the whole ordered life revolved, aimed at the honour and glory of the nations, which is not separate from the gloria Dei.

Thus Calvin wrote to Jeanne d’Albret, the Queen of Navarre:

Kings and princes often wish to avoid submission to Jesus Christ; they are accustomed to make their privileged position into a shield, behind which they hide; they misuse their grandeur as a pretext and are even ashamed to belong to the sheepfold of the great Shepherd. Consider, however, Madam, that the dignity and high position to which the good God has exalted you should doubly oblige you to obey him, since you have received everything from him and each one will have to give an account according to the measure of what one has received. However, since I see how the Spirit of God controls you there is for me more reason to thank him than to admonish you, as if you still needed exhortations. To this I further add, that I have no doubt that you will diligently apply yourself to the study (of God’s Word), which, considering the coolness, weakness and inadequacy found in us, is very necessary.

Madam, having very humbly recommended me in your good favour, I beseech our good God, that he will keep you ever in his grace, that he may govern and guide you by his Spirit, that he may strengthen you with his strength, and may increase you in all that is good.